Revisiting Indigenous Salmon Management for Sustainable Fisheries
For millennia, the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest have been profoundly connected to the land and water that sustain them. At the heart of this relationship are the salmon, which have formed the foundation of vibrant social-ecological systems across the region. Through generations of interdependence, Indigenous communities developed sophisticated systems of salmon management, rooted in cultural beliefs, traditional knowledge, and stewardship practices. These systems promoted the sustained productivity of precolonial salmon fisheries, which likely rivaled early colonial commercial fisheries in scale.
However, the arrival of European colonization fundamentally disrupted these longstanding salmon management regimes. Colonial governments consolidated authority over fisheries, replacing Indigenous management with industrialized, mixed-stock harvesting practices that contributed to widespread declines in salmon populations. Today, many modern salmon fisheries continue to struggle, facing complex challenges including habitat loss, climate-driven changes, and the inherent vulnerabilities of mixed-stock harvesting approaches.
“Salmon remain integral to the food security, cultural practices, health, and economy of Indigenous peoples.”
Amid this ongoing crisis, a growing movement is reviving and reinvigorating traditional Indigenous systems of salmon management. From the revival of ancestral weir and trap technologies to the integration of community-based monitoring and selective harvesting, these efforts are demonstrating the power of place-based, culturally grounded approaches to foster resilient and equitable salmon fisheries. As the world grapples with the impacts of climate change and the urgent need to conserve biodiversity, the lessons of Indigenous salmon management offer valuable insights into sustainable resource stewardship.
Salmon at the Heart of Social-Ecological Systems
Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus) are a keystone species, supporting vibrant human and non-human communities across the North Pacific Rim. For thousands of years, the seasonal return of these anadromous fish has been central to the lifeways of Indigenous peoples, providing a vital source of food, trade, and cultural identity.
Through this deep, multigenerational relationship, Indigenous communities developed sophisticated systems of salmon management. These systems were rooted in traditional laws, cultural and spiritual beliefs, and carefully honed stewardship practices that promoted sustained abundance and equitable access to wild salmon populations.
“Archaeological and ethnographic evidence points to long-term intensive use of salmon with deliberate and well-honed systems of salmon management.”
At the heart of these management systems were place-based approaches that recognized the unique characteristics and needs of individual salmon populations. Rather than targeting mixed aggregations of salmon during their ocean migrations, Indigenous fishers often focused their efforts on specific river systems or population segments, using selective technologies like weirs, traps, and dipnets to harvest salmon while minimizing impacts on non-target stocks.
The cultural and spiritual beliefs underpinning these management systems also played a crucial role. Many Indigenous communities recognized salmon as sentient beings, owed respect and reciprocity. Practices like the First Salmon Ceremony, which involved a short-term moratorium on fishing to allow the first returning salmon to reach their spawning grounds, reflected this deep reverence and responsibility toward the salmon.
“Spiritual lessons and cultural beliefs act as the glue, holding together these systems and fostering direct emotional involvement with natural resources.”
Beyond individual communities, these place-based management systems were often integrated into larger networks of governance and stewardship. Weir locations, for example, were frequently shared between interconnected villages, requiring collaborative decision-making and equitable access arrangements to ensure the sustained productivity of shared salmon runs.
The Impacts of Colonization and the Rise of Mixed-Stock Fisheries
The arrival of European colonization in the 19th century brought sweeping changes that fundamentally disrupted Indigenous salmon management systems. Colonial governments rapidly consolidated authority over fisheries, replacing community-based, selective harvesting practices with industrialized, mixed-stock fishing operations.
The commercialization of salmon fisheries ushered in new technologies, from combustion engines and monofilament nets to canning and refrigeration, that enabled massive increases in harvesting capacity and the ability to ship salmon to global markets. This drive for extraction and profit, coupled with habitat destruction from logging, mining, and other land-use changes, precipitated widespread declines in salmon populations across the region.
“The rise of combustion engines, monofilament nets, and other fishing technologies powered increasingly effective salmon fishing, whereas canning and refrigeration allowed huge quantities of salmon to be packed and shipped to global markets.”
One of the most profound shifts was the gradual replacement of Indigenous in-river salmon fisheries with mixed-stock ocean fisheries as the primary method of harvest. As salmon migrated across international boundaries and jurisdictions during their oceanic feeding and spawning migrations, they became increasingly vulnerable to overharvest. This mismatch between management decisions, fishing opportunities, and the biological processes that sustain salmon populations has had severe consequences, contributing to the collapse of many stocks and undermining the food security and livelihoods of salmon-dependent communities.
“The migratory life cycle of salmon poses additional challenges to sustainability by creating mismatches between management decisions, fishery opportunities, and the biologically relevant processes that support salmon populations.”
Efforts to address these challenges, such as license privatization and consolidation, have sometimes had unintended consequences, further undermining access to salmon fishing for remote and Indigenous communities. Today, many salmon fisheries continue to face a complex web of interrelated social, ecological, and economic challenges, from unpredictable openings and fluctuating global markets to narrowly focused management objectives.
Reviving Traditional Salmon Management Systems
As the crisis in modern salmon fisheries has deepened, a growing movement is turning to the wisdom of traditional Indigenous management systems as a source of inspiration and guidance. These systems, grounded in place-based knowledge, cultural values, and community-scale governance, offer a counterpoint to the shortcomings of contemporary, centralized approaches.
“Indigenous management systems, guided by traditional knowledge and law, also share several key attributes with contemporary resource management; for example, both are guided by knowledge gained through the continuous observation of natural systems.”
At the heart of these traditional systems are the principles of reciprocity, responsibility, and respect. Rather than viewing salmon as a resource to be extracted for profit, Indigenous communities recognized salmon as sentient beings with whom they shared a profound, interdependent relationship. This worldview fostered stewardship practices, from selective harvesting technologies to ceremonial observances, that promoted the long-term stability and abundance of salmon populations.
“Indigenous laws are derived from millennia of experiences in very specific geographies that have shaped their morals, values, and traditional knowledge.”
These place-based, community-centric approaches to salmon management also stood in stark contrast to the centralized, top-down governance models that have dominated colonial and contemporary fisheries management. By grounding decision-making in the lived experiences and traditional knowledge of local communities, these systems were able to nimbly adapt to changing conditions, minimize conservation risks, and ensure equitable access to the resource.
“Proprietary access rights and hereditary management authority were traditionally upheld through family connections and systems of public reciprocity, which promoted equitable and sustained use of salmon.”
Reviving Ancestral Salmon Technologies
The revitalization of traditional salmon harvesting technologies, from weirs and traps to dipnets and reef nets, is a powerful example of how Indigenous communities are reintegrating ancestral knowledge and practices into contemporary resource management. These selective, in-river fishing methods stand in stark contrast to the indiscriminate, mixed-stock harvesting approaches that have dominated modern fisheries.
Fish Weirs
Fish weirs, river-spanning fences that channel salmon into traps or fishways, were once ubiquitous across the Pacific Northwest. Archaeological evidence confirms their use for at least 5,000 years, with Indigenous communities carefully managing access and implementation to promote sustainability. Weirs allowed for selective harvesting, the release of non-target species, and the prioritization of escapement to upriver spawning grounds – all critical elements of resilient salmon management.
“Historical and ethnographic records of Indigenous management systems and beliefs highlight deliberate conservation measures that allowed returning salmon to pass weirs and reach upriver spawning areas, and strictly enforced rules that governed their use.”
Today, the revival of weir-based salmon monitoring and harvest is providing a powerful model for merging traditional knowledge and contemporary science. In the Babine watershed of British Columbia, for example, the Lake Babine Nation has combined the use of a modern aluminum-and-nylon weir with advanced analytical techniques to produce high-quality data on salmon abundance, migration, and harvest – crucial information for effective, community-based management.
Fish Traps
Similarly, the use of selective fish traps, built from stone or wooden materials in river mouths and estuaries, was historically widespread across the Northwest Coast. These traps allowed for the passive capture of migrating salmon, enabling targeted harvest and the safe release of non-target species.
“Oral accounts from Indigenous knowledge holders indicate selective harvesting of chum and pinks in more advanced states of maturation, while sockeye and coho were often eaten fresh.”
While the use of these traditional traps was largely outlawed and displaced by colonial commercial fisheries, recent pilot projects, such as efforts on the lower Columbia and Skeena Rivers, are exploring the potential of modernized trap technologies to support sustainable, selective salmon harvesting. By allowing fishers to target abundant populations or hatchery-origin fish while safely releasing endangered stocks, these traditional methods hold promise for addressing the conservation challenges posed by mixed-stock fisheries.
Reef Nets and Dipnets
Other traditional salmon harvesting technologies, like the sophisticated reef net fisheries of the Straits Salish peoples and the ubiquitous use of dipnets at rapids and waterfalls, are also undergoing a resurgence. These methods, grounded in Indigenous governance systems and cultural beliefs, enable selective, in-river harvesting while minimizing impacts on vulnerable salmon populations.
“Reef netting canoes were traditionally captained by individuals who held inherited rights to long-established reef netting locations. Sacred ceremonial rights accompanied initiation into the role, and reef nets were themselves sacred objects imbued with feminine life-giving qualities.”
The revival of these ancestral technologies, from weirs and traps to reef nets and dipnets, demonstrates the power of Indigenous knowledge and practices to inform sustainable, equitable, and community-based approaches to salmon management. By integrating traditional harvesting methods with contemporary scientific monitoring and adaptive management strategies, these efforts are helping to rebuild resilient salmon fisheries while honoring the deep cultural connections between Indigenous peoples and the salmon.
Pathways toward Collaborative Management and Reconciliation
As the crisis in modern salmon fisheries has deepened, the need to incorporate Indigenous knowledge and management systems into resource governance has become increasingly apparent. Colonial dispossession has had severe impacts, stripping away the rights and jurisdiction of Indigenous communities and contributing to the decline of salmon populations.
“In Canada and the United States, Indigenous management of Pacific salmon was painfully and intentionally disrupted beginning in the mid-nineteenth century and replaced by colonial government authority.”
However, across the region, Indigenous peoples are actively reasserting their sovereignty and working to rebuild the institutions and practices that were decimated by colonization. From comanagement agreements that elevate the role of Indigenous knowledge and governance to the revitalization of traditional harvesting technologies, these efforts are forging new pathways toward reconciliation and sustainable resource stewardship.
“Salmon remain integral to the food security, cultural practices, health, and economy of Indigenous peoples. Although different legal and societal circumstances have contributed to this resurgence across North America, Indigenous communities are increasingly responsible for the management of fisheries, and stewardship of lands and natural resources within their homelands.”
A prime example is the Fisheries Resources Reconciliation Agreement (FRRA) negotiated between Coastal First Nations in British Columbia and Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans. This agreement provides a framework for true comanagement, bringing together First Nations and government agencies to set harvest levels and develop community-based commercial fisheries that integrate traditional knowledge and management practices.
“Effective resource management requires scientific, regulatory, political, and moral legitimacy, and new examples of fisheries reconciliation processes are emerging in Canada with the potential to strengthen the legitimacy of management frameworks.”
As these collaborative governance models take root, they hold the promise of supporting not only the recovery of salmon populations, but also the revitalization of Indigenous cultures, identities, and food security. By elevating the role of traditional knowledge and place-based management systems, these approaches can help to address the complex, interrelated challenges facing modern salmon fisheries.
Lessons for Resilient Social-Ecological Systems
The lessons of Indigenous salmon management systems offer valuable insights for fostering resilience in a world facing rapid environmental change and escalating threats to biodiversity. These place-based, community-centric approaches exemplify many of the principles that have been identified as essential for building resilience in social-ecological systems.
“Indigenous salmon management systems exhibit many of the principles that can promote resilience in social–ecological systems, such as maintaining biological diversity, garnering broad participation, and creating diverse interconnected systems of governance.”
By grounding decision-making in deep, multigenerational understandings of the relationships between humans, salmon, and the broader ecosystem, these traditional systems promoted adaptive learning and the capacity to respond flexibly to changing conditions. The emphasis on reciprocity, responsibility, and respect also fostered a strong sense of stewardship and direct emotional investment in the health of the resource.
Moreover, the integration of terminal, selective harvesting practices with community-based monitoring and governance allowed for the alignment of management scales with biologically relevant processes. This helped to minimize the conservation risks associated with mixed-stock fisheries and ensure the long-term stability of salmon populations and the communities that depend on them.
“Reconnecting salmon harvesting with stock assessment using terminal and selective in-river fisheries can unify monitoring, management, and harvest under the umbrella of local management, and encourage fisher participation in resource stewardship.”
As the world grapples with the impacts of climate change, habitat loss, and other anthropogenic threats, the revival of these traditional salmon management systems offers a powerful model for sustainable resource stewardship. By integrating Indigenous knowledge and practices with contemporary scientific approaches, these efforts hold the potential to rebuild resilient, equitable, and community-based fisheries – not only for salmon, but for a wide range of social-ecological systems facing complex challenges.
Conclusion: Honoring the Salmon, Honoring the People
The story of salmon fisheries in the Pacific Northwest is one of profound disruption, loss, and resilience. The arrival of European colonization radically altered the social-ecological systems that had sustained Indigenous communities for millennia, displacing traditional management regimes and contributing to the decline of salmon populations across the region.
Yet, even in the face of this adversity, the connection between Indigenous peoples and the salmon remains unbroken. Salmon continue to be integral to the food security, cultural practices, and economic well-being of these communities, driving a resurgence of traditional knowledge and stewardship practices.
“Having supported vibrant salmon-dependent communities for millennia before European settlement, we believe that revitalizing Indigenous salmon management systems can support long-term opportunities for equitable and sustainable harvest of wild salmon across western North America.”
As we grapple with the urgent need to conserve biodiversity and build resilience in the face of mounting environmental challenges, the lessons of Indigenous salmon management offer a powerful path forward. By honoring the deep, reciprocal relationship between people and salmon, and uplifting the wisdom of place-based, community-driven stewardship, these efforts hold the potential to reshape the future of fisheries management – not just for salmon, but for social-ecological systems around the world.
